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http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=peq9KcBlQtQC&oi=fnd&pg=PA265&dq=Racial/Cultural+Identity+Development+(RCID)+model++by+Sue+and+Sue+(2003)&ots=yQbvrZzVcX&sig=jcY1rWwU7h7eJAl72o1Vo4esUrs#v=onepage&q=Racial%2FCultural%20Identity%20Development%20(RCID)%20model%20%20by%20Sue%20and%20Sue%20(2003)&f=false

Outline

i. Self-recognition b. Childhood i. Self-understanding c. Adolescence i. Identity statuses ii. Parental influence d. Adulthood
 * 1) I. What is identity?-**Amanda**
 * 2) a. Erikson’s view of identity
 * 3) b. Contemporary thoughts of identity development
 * 4) II. Developmental changes-Amanda
 * 5) a. Infancy

i. Ethnic identity b. Bicultural identity (identity with own ethnic group and dominant culture) c. Individual differences within cultures d. Minority culture identity <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">e. Deaf identity development
 * 1) <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">III. Cultural identity-**Stedman**
 * 2) <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">a. What is culture identity?
 * 1) <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">IV. Developmental Models-**Emily**
 * 2) <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">a. Generic stages of culture identity developmental models (3 stages: stage one, intermediate & final)
 * 3) <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">b. Cass’ model (development of non-heterosexual individuals)
 * 4) <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">c. Helms’ White Racial Identity Model
 * 5) <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">d. Racial/Cultural Identity Developmental Model (R/CID)
 * 6) <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">e. Biracial Identity Developmental Mode

<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">There are many questions that at some point and time occur to all of us as beings such as, Who am I? When did I begin? What is unique about me? What will happen when I die? (Santrock, 2012). These questions reflect the exploration of personal identity that all individuals frequently question in an attempt reveal the many pieces that compose their identity. A person’s identity is what makes them different from others. In addition, it may be the way a person defines himself or herself as well as the values that structure their life that compose their identity. Identity is a network of various properties that a person may have contingently or temporarily. An individual may never truly understand their personal identity or may choose to exchange their identity for another under certain circumstances (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2010). <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Identity itself can be multi-faceted, including a person’s political identity, career identity, religious identity, intellectual identity, sexual identity, cultural identity, relationship identity, physical identity and personality. Within these dimensions are the elements of a person’s career, beliefs, sexuality and body image that combine to gradually form an individual’s distinctiveness that is dissimilar from others. Questions about identity universally arise commonly in adolescence. The years of adolescence propose many decisions that will create the core of who and what an individual is as a human being and what his or her self-portrait or identity will be (Santrock, 2012). Nevertheless, reaching adolescence involves many stages of self-understanding.
 * //<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Identity //**

<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Erik Erikson was the first researchers to develop an importance of posing identity questions in hopes of understanding adolescent development. Erikson’s ideas of identity development created insights into what adolescents are thinking and feeling during these developmental years. In Erikson’s theory, he introduced the concept of identity versus identity confusion. Erikson claimed that during this time adolescents are faced with decisions of who they are and in what direction their life is going. It is suggested that these decisions of identity can occur throughout an individual’s lifetime; however, adolescence is the period of time when these self-identifying questions are important due to the difficult questions and choices adolescents are faced with, such as responsibility and how their lives are going to progress (Santrock, 2012). <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">According to Erikson’s theory, there is a gap between childhood security and adult autonomy, known as psychosocial moratorium. It is during this gap that Erikson suggests that society leaves adolescents free from responsibilities and provides opportunities to test various identities through exploration and experimentation. These intentional experiences allow youth to discover who they are and where they fit into this world. Erikson firmly believes that adolescents who are able to take part in this experimentation will eventually shed their undesirable behaviors and identities and emerge with a positive sense of self. Alternatively, if adolescents are not able to emerge from an identity crisis, they will suffer from identity confusion. Identity confusion would cause adolescents to isolate themselves from family and peers or possibly surround themselves in a world exclusively of peers. As a result, individuals would lose their identity amongst everyone else (Santrock, 2012).
 * //<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Identity Theory //**

<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">How and when does an infant come to recognize the “self”? The self is the most important stimulation source that an infant encounters. All senses are devised to simultaneously perceive information about the self and the world. This dual performance enables infants to perceive a distinguished self from the beginning of existence (Bahrick, Moss & Fadil, 1996). Nevertheless, studying the self in infancy is very difficult due to infants having the inability to verbally express how they experience themselves (Santrock, 2012). Research has suggested that development focused on self recognition in a mirror has emphasized the basis of self-understanding. The Rouge Test, in which an infant is placed in front of a mirror with a mark on its nose, is a primary method to test an infant’s visual self-recognition. As early as 3 months, infants show attentiveness and a positive attitude toward their image in the mirror. The age at which the toddler wipes the spot off marks the onset of self-recognition. Attempts to wipe off the mark typically emerge between 15 and 20 months of age (Bahrick et al., 1996); however, ability to recognize physical characteristics does not appear until an infant is in its second year (Santrock, 2012). <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Visual recognition of one’s own self based on physical features transpires during the first half-year of an infant’s life (Bahrick et al., 1996). By the end of a toddler’s second year and into its third year, they begin to show forms of self-awareness in the interest of “me”. For instance, they will refer to themselves as, “Me hungry”. This development of self-awareness denotes the beginning of a child’s concept regarding their body shape and appearance as well as provides a step forward in their development of their individual identity and image (Santrock, 2012).
 * //<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Infancy //**

<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Self-understanding in childhood is not limited to self-recognition because unlike infants, children are able to communicate and demonstrate self-understanding. According to Santrock (2012), there are primarily five elements of self-understanding in young children: confusion of self, mind and body, concrete descriptions, physical descriptions, active descriptions and unrealistic positive overstimulation. A child’s description of themselves is generally positive due to the inability to distinguish between their desired and actual competence, confusion of ability and effort and comparison of their present abilities to an earlier age. Comparisons to an earlier age, enables the child to believe their abilities are much better than perhaps they really are. Furthermore, in early childhood, children are able to understand others. Children begin to comprehend that other people in their environment have emotions and desires (Santrock, 2012). <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">During middle and late childhood, self-understanding becomes more complex, especially as social understanding improves. According to Santrock (2012), there are five changes of self-understanding in middle and late childhood: psychological characteristics/traits, social descriptions, social comparison, real self/ideal self and more realistic evaluations. Increased social comparison and perspective taking, which is the ability to understand other people’s thought and feelings, results in the more realistic self-evaluation in middle and late childhood. Children also become increasingly skeptical of assertions and question the source of information regarding psychological traits (Santrock, 2012).
 * //<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Early, Middle and Late Childhood //**

<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">The concept of self-understanding continually progresses from childhood to adolescence. Many adolescents develop abstract or idealistic ways of thinking as well as become more self-conscious and self-preoccupied (Santrock, 2012). It is well known that during teenage years, self-image becomes very important. Adolescents are attentive to what they look like, what they wear and how other people view them. Comparisons between themselves and others are also more frequent. Furthermore, an adolescent’s self-understanding is more likely to fluctuate across situations and time than in childhood. An adolescent’s self will continue to be affected by instability until the individual develops a more cohesive theory of self. In late adolescence and emerging adulthood, self-understanding becomes more integrative, systematically piecing together the self. By the end of adolescence, individuals will have developed a general theory of self as well as an integrative awareness of identity (Santrock, 2012). <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Parents are also an important aspect to the development of an adolescent’s identity. According to Santrock (2012), poor communication between parents and adolescents as well as persistent disagreements with peers can be linked to negative identity development. Alternatively, the promotion of individuality and connectedness within a family’s atmosphere can support positive identity development in adolescence.
 * //<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Adolescence //**

<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">As individuals transition from adolescence into adulthood, they begin to self-reflect about what they would want to do with their lives and in what direction it is going. In addition, self-awareness becomes increasingly important in early adulthood because adults begin to contemplate their strengths, weaknesses and psychological being. Early adulthood is also the time when adults are most benefitted from the awareness of their weaknesses. The awareness of one’s own strengths and weaknesses is an essential dimension of self-understating for adults (Santrock, 2012). <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">The concept of “possible selves” is also an important aspect of self-understanding during adulthood. Adult individuals ponder on what they would like to become as well as what they are afraid of becoming. In early adulthood, these concepts may be unrealistic; however, by middle age individuals generally describe their possible selves in terms of their life and what they have accomplished. Additionally, the revision of possible selves is continuous throughout ones adult years. As individuals age, they may be able to modify and adapt their possible selves to match what is desired. The ability to adapt possible selves may potentially maintain the psychological well-being and positive self-esteem of adults as they get older (Santrock, 2012). <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Furthermore, self-understanding in adulthood can be accompanied by a “life review”. A life review involves looking back at your own life experiences, evaluating them and interpreting them. Reevaluation of past experiences will often enhance an older adult’s understanding of what is taking place. The recognition of what is taking place will provide a visual as well as a new and significant meaning to an individual’s life. In addition, a life review would permit an individual to identify and reflect on the positive and negative aspects of their life to develop wisdom and self-understanding (Santrock, 2012).
 * //<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Adulthood //**

//**<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">References **// <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Bahrick, L.E., Moss, L. and C. Fadil. (1996). Development of Visual Self-Recognition in Infancy. //Ecological Psychology, 8//(3). 189-208.

<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Santrock, J.W. (2012). A Topical Approach to Life-Span Development. 6th Ed. New York: McGraw-Hill. Print

<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. (2010). Personal Identity. Retrieved from http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/identity-personal/

//Cultural Identity//

The concept of culture brings to mind diverse ethnic groups, languages, cuisines, and geographical differences. Culture is much more than the unique attributes of varying cultures. Culture refers to beliefs, behavior patterns, and aspects of a particular group that transcends generations (Santrock, 2012). Cultural values and traditions are passed along by teachers, parents, and community leaders. Regardless of context, culture is a rich part of life that influences it’s members greatly. “Cultural identity identity may be considered as the inner vision that a person possesses of himself or herself as a member of a cultural group and as a unique human being” (Lee, 2006). Cultural identity essentially molds individuals belief systems, social forms, and norms (Lee, 2006 & Santrock, 2012). People react emotionally when cultural values are violated or ignored (Santrock, 2012). Reacting emotionally is normal, people naturally see the world in the context of their culture. People also project their cultural customs on the world as normal and good for all (Santrock, 2012). Such actions are defined as being ethnocentric, a felt sense that ones’s cultural group is superior to others (Santrock, 2012).

The development of cultural identity is theorized in stages that occur in progression. Initially, individuals possess limited knowledge as a cultural being prior to confrontation of cultural issues (Lee, 2006). Once awareness of cultural issues is recognized, individuals embrace cultural realities and attempt to see others as cultural beings (Lee, 2006). Finally, reflection as cultural being takes place followed by an internalized awareness as a cultural being (Lee, 2006). Cultural identity is vital in attitude development toward self and others in and outside of ones own cultural group (Lee, 2006). Cultural identity is explored in various aspects that include racial and ethnic identities (Lee, 2006). Ethnic identity refers to the sense of association an individual feels to an ethnic group, along with the sentiment that exists (Santrock, 2012). For minorities maintaing ethnic identity amongst dominant culture is a persistent struggle (Santrock, 2012).

Within cultures numerous elements exist that make each unique. Elements of culture include but are not limited to religion, cuisine, history, and traditions. Art and music also play a vital role in many cultures. Each culture places emphasis on differing aspects of life whether it be health, education, hygiene, or some other entity. For instance, diet in some cultures differs based on the religion practiced in the subset of the community. Furthermore, within cultures are the concept of individualism and collectivism. Individualism is a self-serving attribute that is concerned with personal goals and independence (Santrock, 2012). Collectivism values what is best for the group over individual desires. Western cultures like the United States and Great Britain are characterized as being individualistic societies. India, Japan and Thailand, Eastern cultures, are described as collectivistic (Santrock, 2012). Individualistic cultured individuals have many casual relationships, rare mother-child physical contact and value pleasure and freedom. In contrast, collectivistic cultures value security, obedience and have frequent physical contact between mother and child.

Today’s society is comprised of numerous cultures that many individuals choose to identify with. Bicultural identity is the act of identifying dually with ones ethnic group and the dominant culture. Today, many individuals develop numerous identities and utilize them when necessary (Chen, Benet-Martiniez, & Bond, 2008).

Bicultural identity is common among many adolescents today and serves as a coping mechanism of many minority youth (Santrock, 2012). Time plays a major role in ethnic and bicultural identity development. Older generations within families identify ethnically and culturally differently from younger generations. First generation family members display secure attachment culturally and ethnically and are unlikely to change. Identification differences are mainly dependent upon length of time in a setting (Santrock, 2012). Citizenship type contributes heavily in minority culture development, as well as, spoken languages and participation in non-homogenous social networks (Santrock, 2012). African-Americans, Asian-Americans, and Mexian-Americans all represent minority groups in the United States. Identity development within each of these groups differs greatly. Asian and Hispanic groups differ from White-Americans and African Americans. These groups have experienced racially biased discrimination that has caused extensive retention of their ethnic identity and cultural traditions. In contrast, Asian and Hispanic groups immigrated voluntarily and held onto ethnic languages and ways and had no history of enslavement (Porter & Washington, 1993). The differences between these groups contributes to a identity that is either balanced or significantly centralized.

Identity exploration is positively correlated with favorable attitude toward ones own culture and that of others (Santrock, 2012). In the United States minority youth typically live in impoverished areas and are exposed to crime, drugs and interact with individuals who are not attending school or are unemployed (Santrock, 2012). Research indicates that impoverished surroundings negatively impact identity development. Deaf individuals represent another form of culture that lends itself to capabilities or the lack of. Deaf individuals identity development is heavily dependent upon the circumstances of the hearing loss (Glickman, 1993). Deaf identity is comprised primarily of four classifications. Some individuals in the deaf community are considered culturally hearing. Culturally hearing, are deaf individuals, that share the dominant attitudes and beliefs held by the dominant hearing community (Glickman, 1993). For some individuals, loyalty between deaf and hearing societies causes confusion regarding relationship to each community. Some individuals immerse themselves into deaf culture and solely identify in that manner (Glickman, 1993). Others form an identity that is balanced between the hearing and deaf communities. These individuals take pride in their deafness (Glickman, 1993).

Chen, S. X., Benet-Martinez, V., & Bond, M. H. (2008). Bicultural identity, bilingualism, and psychological adjustment in multicultural societies: Immigration- based and globalization-based acculturation. //Journal of Personality//, //76//(4), 803-838. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2008.00505.x

Glickman, S. N. (1993). Deaf identity development: Construction and validation of a theoretical model. //Electronic Doctoral Dissertations for UMass Amherst.// Paper AAI9329612. Retrieved From:[]

Lee, C. C. (2006). //Multicultural issues in counseling.// Alexandria: American Counseling Association.

Porter, J. R., & Washington, R. E. (1993). Minority identity and self-esteem. //Annual Review of Sociology//, //19//, 139-161. Retrieved from []

Santrock, J.W. (2012). A Topical Approach to Life-Span Development. 6th Ed. New York: McGraw-Hill. Print

Emily's Section-- Last part of paper:

====<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,serif;">Cultural identity developmental models are useful instruments in organizing the developmental processes and behaviors of individuals (Sanchez, n.d.). Cultural identity models help explain progressive stages throughout individuals’ lives and help demonstrate an individual’s distinct cultural heritage (Sanchez, n.d.). Because of their similar structure, most models tend to resemble the three generic stages of cultural identity development: Beginning Stage—lack of awareness of the importance of culture; Intermediate Stages—psychological discomfort, self-examination, over-identification with own culture; Final Stage—self-acceptance and appreciation of culture (Lee, Blando, Mizelle, & Orozco, 2007). ====

====<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,serif;">Models relating to racial identity are most widely known (Sanchez, n.d.). Cultural identity development models include: African American identity, white identity, Asian American identity, Hispanic/Latino Americans, American Indian identity, and biracial/multiracial identity. Janet E. Helms’ White Racial Identity Model was introduced in 1990 to “raise awareness of white people about their role in creating and maintaining a racist society and the need for them to act responsibly by dismantling it,” (Helms, 1992, p. 61). Helms’ model consists of two processes—abandonment of racism and the development of a non-racist white identity—with six specific racial identity statuses: 1) Contact Status, an obliviousness to one’s own racial identity; 2) Disintegration, first acknowledgement of white identity; 3) Reintegration, questions own racial identity, more conscious belief in white racial superiority; 4) Psuedo-independent, acceptance of own and other’s race; 5) Immersion/Emmersion, an honest appraisal of racism and significance of whiteness; and 6) Autonomy, increasing awareness of one’s own whiteness, development of a nonracist white identity (Helms, 1992). An individual progresses through the first three stages of obliviousness to awareness of his or her own white race and increases their acknowledgement for whiteness and its role on society. Once an individual advances through these stages, the last three are about developing a non-racist white identity and acknowledging what it means to be white, taking ownership of racial power and privilege and how it affects others, and working towards abandoning white privilege (Helms, 1992). ====

====<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,serif;">Another widely known racial identity model is Atkinson, Morten, and Sue’s (1989) Racial/Cultural Identity Development Model (R/CID) (Lee, Blando, Mizelle, & Orozco, 2007). This model combines the commonalities of several models for varying groups (racial/ethnic minorities, non-heterosexual individuals) into one (Sanchez, n.d.). ====

====<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,serif;">The first stage of R/CID is Conformity—the individual embraces the dominant culture’s beliefs and customs while the characteristics of his or her own culture are rejected and scorned (Atkinson, Morten, & Sue, 1989). According to Sue & Sue (1999), this stage has the most “profound negative impact upon (ethnic) minority groups,” as individuals experience levels of low self-esteem for not being a part of the dominant culture (p. 96). White Americans are often the reference group, with their lifestyles, value systems, and cultural characteristics being highly valued in this stage (Atkinson, Morten, & Sue, 1989). ====

====<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,serif;">The second stage of R/CID is Dissonance—an individual will experience situations and encounter information that is inconsistent with culturally held beliefs, attitudes, and values (Atkinson, Morten, & Sue, 1989). The denial that was previously built in stage one begins to break down, and an individual begins to question and challenge the attitudes and beliefs of that stage (Sanchez, n.d.). ====

====<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,serif;">Stage three, Resistance and Immersion, is when an individual begins to fully endorse their own culture’s values and beliefs and reject those of the dominant culture (Sanchez, n.d.). During this stage, an individual has a strong desire to eliminate oppression of his or her own minority group, experiencing feelings of guilt, shame, and anger (Atkinson, Morten, & Sue, 1989). ====

====<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,serif;">Introspection, the next to final stage, is where the individual begins to realize the intense feelings developed in stage three are draining and acting as a roadblock to developing one’s own self-identity (Atkinson, Morten, & Sue, 1989). The individual may experience conflicting feelings of discontent and discomfort with their own minority group viewpoint (Sanchez, n.d.). In this stage, an individual tries to develop a better understanding of one’s self and takes an objective view of both cultures, while trying to integrate the two (Sanchez, n.d.). ====

====<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,serif;">The final stage of R/CID, Integrative Awareness, is where a person develops an “inner sense of security and can now appreciate unique aspects of their culture as well as those in U.S. culture,” (Sue & Sue, 1999, p. 106). In this stage, the minority culture is not in conflict with the dominant culture, as the person can see both positive and negative views of both (Atkinson, Morten, & Sue, 1989). ====

====<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,serif;">A model that focuses on a person’s sexual orientation is Vivian Cass’ model of development of non-heterosexual individuals. This model is based on two broad assumptions: 1) identity is acquired through a developmental process, and 2) the locus of stability of, and change, in behavior lies in the interaction between an individual and his or her environment (Sanchez, n.d.). The model has six stages that a person goes through in the development of “who am I?” to being able to define oneself more holistically (Cass, 1979). ====

====<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,serif;">The beginning stage, Identity Confusion, starts with a person asking his or her self the question of “who am I” and “could I be gay?” (Cass, 1979). It is within this stage that a person may accept, deny, or reject his or her self-identity. ====

====<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,serif;">In the Identity Comparison stage, an individual begins to accept the possibility that she or he may be gay. Individuals in this stage tend to alienate themselves and live in isolation. The person may grieve for the losses of things she or he will give up by embracing their sexual orientation (Cass, 1979). ====

====<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,serif;">In the following stage, Identity Tolerance, there is an increased commitment to being lesbian or gay and a person begins to accept the sexual, social, and emotional needs that go with this identity (Cass, 1979). It is within this period that an individual begins to socialize with other lesbians and gays and leaves the isolation stage. ====

====<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,serif;">Identity Acceptance, the fourth stage, enables the person states to his or her self that they will be OK (Cass, 1979). An individual fully accepts his or her identity and continues to connect with the lesbian and gay culture (Cass, 1979). ====

====<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,serif;">In the next stage, the person begins to feel pride in their new identity (Cass, 1979). A person may say, “I’ve got to let people know who I am!” and begins to immerse oneself in lesbian and gay culture (Cass, 1979). With this immersion, the person has less and less involvement with the heterosexual community (Cass, 1979). During this phase of personal development, an individual may split the world into “gay” (good) and “straight” (bad) (Cass, 1979). ====

====<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,serif;">In the sixth and final stage, Identity Synthesis occurs within the individual (Cass, 1979). This is the point where an individual develops a holistic view of oneself, defining his or her identity in a more complete manner, where sexual orientation is an aspect of self and not the whole identity. ====

====<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,serif;">Although models of racial and/or cultural identities are comprehensive in bringing multiple racial and cultural identity concepts together, users of these models must be aware of possible stereotyping, have an understanding that such models lack an adequate integration of sociodemographic group identities, and remember that they are merely conceptual aids to a far more complex human development system (Sanchez, n.d.). ====

**<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,serif;">References **
====Atkinson, D. R., Morten, G., & Sue, D. W. (1989). A minority identity development model. In Dr. Atkinson, G. Morten, & D. W. Sue (Eds), Counseling American Minorities (pp. 35- 52). Dubuque, IA: W. C. Brown.====

====<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,serif;">Lee, W., Blando, J., Mizelle, N., & Orozco, G. (2007). Introduction to multicultural counseling for helping professionals, second edition. New York: Routledge. ====

====<span style="color: #1a1a1a; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">Helms, J. E. (1984). Toward a theoretical explanation of the effects of race on counseling: A Black and White model. The Counseling Psychologist, 12, 153-165. ====

====<span style="color: #1a1a1a; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">Helms, J. E. (1992). //A race is a nice thing to have: A guide to being a white person or understanding the white persons in your life//. Topeka, Kansas: Content Communications. ====

Final Version Completed 8/1/12

<span style="display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; text-align: center;">Life-Span Development: <span style="display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; text-align: center;">Cultural Identity <span style="display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; text-align: center;">Amanda Morrison, Stedman Jones, Emily Sigmon <span style="display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; text-align: center;">Lenoir-Rhyne University <span style="display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; text-align: center;">August 2, 2012 <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">There are many questions that at some point and time occur to all human beings such as: Who am I? When did I begin? What is unique about me? What will happen when I die? (Santrock, 2012). These questions reflect the exploration of personal identity that all individuals frequently question in an attempt to reveal the many pieces that compose his or her identity. A person’s identity is what makes them different from others (Santrock, 2012). In addition, it may be the way a person defines himself or herself, as well as the values that structure their life that compose their identity. Identity is a network of various properties that a person may have permanently or temporarily. An individual may never truly understand their personal identity or may choose to exchange their identity for another under certain circumstances (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2010). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Identity itself can be multi-faceted, including a person’s political, career, religious, intellectual, sexual, cultural, relationship, and physical identities with addition to his or her personality (Santrock, 2012). Within these dimensions are the elements of a person’s career, beliefs, sexuality and body image that combine to gradually form an individual’s distinctiveness that is dissimilar from others. Questions about identity universally arise commonly in adolescence. The years of adolescence propose many decisions that will create the core of who and what an individual is as a human being and what his or her self-portrait or identity will be. Nevertheless, reaching adolescence involves many stages of self-understanding (Santrock, 2012). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Erik Erikson (1959) was the first researcher to develop the importance of posing identity questions in hopes of understanding adolescent development. Erikson’s ideas of identity development created insights into what adolescents are thinking and feeling during these developmental years. In Erikson’s theory, he introduced the concept of identity versus identity confusion (Santrock, 2012). Erikson claimed that during this time, adolescents are faced with decisions of who they are and in what direction their life is going. It is suggested that these decisions of identity can occur throughout an individual’s lifetime; however, adolescence is the period of time when these self-identifying questions are important due to the difficult questions and choices adolescents are faced with, such as responsibility and how their lives are going to progress (Santrock, 2012). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">According to Erikson’s theory (1959), there is a gap between childhood security and adult self-sufficiency, known as psychosocial moratorium. It is during this gap that Erikson suggested society relieves adolescents from responsibilities and provides opportunities to test various identities through exploration and experimentation. These intentional experiences allow youth to discover who they are and where they fit into this world (Santrock, 2012). Erikson believed adolescents who are able to take part in this experimentation will eventually shed their disruptive behaviors and identities and emerge with a positive sense of self. Alternatively, if adolescents are not able to surface from an identity crisis, they will experience identity confusion. Identity confusion in adolescence causes an adolescent to isolate themselves from family and peers, or possibly triggers the adolescent to immerse themselves in a world entirely of peers. As a result, individuals would lose their identity amongst everyone else (Santrock, 2012). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">How and when does an infant come to recognize the “self”? The self is the most important stimulation source that an infant encounters. All senses are devised to simultaneously perceive information about the self and the world. This dual performance enables infants to perceive a distinguished self from the beginning of existence (Bahrick, Moss & Fadil, 1996). Nevertheless, studying the self in infancy is very difficult due to infants having the inability to verbally express how they experience themselves (Santrock, 2012). Research has suggested that development focused on self-recognition in a mirror has emphasized the basis of self-understanding. The Rouge Test, in which an infant is placed in front of a mirror with a mark on its nose, is a primary method used to test an infant’s visual self-recognition. As early as 3 months, infants show attentiveness and a positive attitude toward their image in the mirror. The age at which the toddler will wipe the spot off marks the onset of self-recognition, which typically emerges between 15 and 20 months of age (Bahrick et al., 1996). This ability to recognize physical characteristics does not appear until an infant is in its second year (Santrock, 2012). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Visual recognition of one’s own self based on physical features transpires during the first half-year of an infant’s life (Bahrick et al., 1996). By the end of a toddler’s second year and into its third year, they begin to show forms of self-awareness in the interest of “me”. For instance, they will refer to themselves as, “Me hungry”. This development of self-awareness denotes the beginning of a child’s concept regarding their body shape and appearance, as well as provides a step forward in their development of their individual identity and image (Santrock, 2012). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Self-understanding in childhood is not limited to self-recognition, because unlike infants, children are able to communicate and demonstrate self-understanding (Santrock, 2012). According to Santrock (2012), there are primarily five elements of self-understanding in young children: confusion of self, mind and body, concrete descriptions, physical descriptions, active descriptions and unrealistic positive overstimulation (p. 340). A child’s description of his or her self is generally positive due to the inability to distinguish between their desired and actual competence, confusion of ability/effort, and comparison of their present abilities to an earlier age. Comparisons to an earlier age will enable the child to believe their abilities are much better than perhaps they really are. Furthermore, in early childhood, children are able to understand others by comprehending that other people in their environment have emotions and desires (Santrock, 2012). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">During middle and late childhood, self-understanding becomes more complex, especially as social understanding improves (Santrock, 2012). Santrock (2012) states there are five changes of self-understanding in middle and late childhood: psychological characteristics/traits, social descriptions, social comparison, real self/ideal self, and more realistic evaluations (p. 342). Increased social comparison and perspective taking, which is the ability to understand other people’s thought and feelings, results in the more realistic self-evaluation in middle and late childhood. Children also become increasingly skeptical and question the sources of information (Santrock, 2012). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">The concept of self-understanding continually progresses from childhood to adolescence. Many adolescents develop abstract or idealistic ways of thinking, as well as become more self-conscious and self-preoccupied (Santrock, 2012). It is well known that during teenage years, self-image becomes very important to an adolescent. Adolescents are attentive to what they look like, what they wear, and how other people view them. Comparisons between themselves and others are also more frequent. Furthermore, an adolescent’s self-understanding is more likely to fluctuate across situations and time than in childhood (Santrock, 2012). An adolescent’s self will continue to be affected by instability until the individual develops a more cohesive theory of self. In late adolescence and emerging adulthood, self-understanding becomes more integrative, systematically piecing together the self. By the end of adolescence, individuals will have developed a general theory of self, as well as an integrative awareness of identity (Santrock, 2012). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Parents are also an important aspect to the development of an adolescent’s identity (Santrock, 2012). Santrock (2012) acknowledges poor communication between parents and adolescents and persistent disagreements with peers can be linked to negative identity development (p. 356). Alternatively, the promotion of individuality and connectedness within a family’s atmosphere can support positive identity development in adolescence (Santrock, 2012). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">As individuals transition from adolescence into adulthood, they begin to self-reflect about what they would want to do with their lives and in what direction it is going. In addition, self-awareness becomes increasingly important in early adulthood because adults begin to contemplate their strengths, weaknesses, and psychological being. Early adulthood is also the period when adults benefit the most from the awareness of their weaknesses. The awareness of one’s own strengths and weaknesses is an essential dimension of self-understating for adults (Santrock, 2012). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">The concept of “possible selves” is also an important aspect of self-understanding during adulthood. Adult individuals ponder on what they would like to become, as well as what they are afraid of becoming. In early adulthood, these concepts may be unrealistic; however, by middle age, individuals generally describe their possible selves in terms of their life and what they have accomplished. Additionally, the revision of possible selves is continuous throughout the adult years. As individuals age, they may be able to modify and adapt their possible selves to match what is desired. The ability to adapt possible selves may potentially maintain the psychological well-being and positive self-esteem of adults as they get older (Santrock, 2012). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Furthermore, self-understanding in adulthood can be accompanied by a “life review”. A life review involves looking back at one’s own life experiences, evaluating them and interpreting them. Reevaluation of past experiences will often enhance an older adult’s understanding of what is taking place. The recognition of what is taking place will provide a visual in addition to a new and significant meaning to an individual’s life. A life review permits an individual to identify and reflect on the positive and negative aspects of their life and to develop wisdom and self-understanding (Santrock, 2012). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">The concept of culture encompasses diverse ethnic groups, languages, cuisines, and geographical differences. Culture is much more than the unique attributes of varying cultures. Culture refers to beliefs, behavior patterns, and aspects of a particular group that transcends generations (Santrock, 2012). Cultural values and traditions are passed along by teachers, parents, and community leaders. Regardless of context, culture is a rich part of life that influences its members greatly. “Cultural identity may be considered as the inner vision that a person possesses of himself or herself as a member of a cultural group and as a unique human being” (Lee, 2006). Cultural identity molds individuals’ belief systems, social forms, and norms (Lee, 2006 & Santrock, 2012). People react emotionally when cultural values are violated or ignored (Santrock, 2012). Reacting emotionally is normal; people naturally see the world in the context of their culture. People also project their cultural customs on the world as normal and good for all (Santrock, 2012). Such actions are defined as being ethnocentric, a felt sense that ones’ cultural group is superior to others (Santrock, 2012). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">The development of cultural identity is theorized in stages that occur in progression. Initially, individuals possess limited knowledge as a cultural being prior to confrontation of cultural issues (Lee, 2006). Once awareness of cultural issues is recognized, individuals embrace cultural realities and attempt to see others as cultural beings (Lee, 2006). Finally, reflection as a cultural being takes place followed by an internalized awareness (Lee, 2006). Cultural identity is vital in attitude development toward self and others in and outside of ones’ own cultural group. Cultural identity is explored in various aspects that include racial and ethnic identities (Lee, 2006). Ethnic identity refers to the sense of association an individual feels to an ethnic group, along with the sentiment that exists (Santrock, 2012). For minorities, maintaining ethnic identity amongst dominant culture is a persistent struggle (Santrock, 2012). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Within cultures, numerous elements exist that make each unique. Elements of culture include, but are not limited to: religion, cuisine, history, and traditions. Art and music also play a vital role in many cultures. Each culture places emphasis on differing aspects of life, whether it is health, education, hygiene, or some other entity. For instance, diet in some cultures differs based on the religion practiced in the subset of the community. Furthermore, within cultures, there are the concepts of individualism and collectivism (Santrock, 2012). Individualism is a self-serving attribute that is concerned with personal goals and independence. On the other hand, collectivism values what is best for the group over individual desires. Western cultures like the United States and Great Britain are characterized as being individualistic societies (Santrock, 2012). India, Japan, Thailand, and eastern cultures are described as collectivistic (Santrock, 2012). Individualistic cultured individuals have many casual relationships, rare mother-child physical contact, and value pleasure and freedom. In contrast, collectivistic cultures value security, obedience, and have frequent physical contact between mother and child (Santrock, 2012). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Today’s world is comprised of numerous cultures that many individuals choose to identify with. Bicultural identity is the act of identifying dually with ones’ ethnic group and the dominant culture (Santrock, 2012). Today, many individuals develop numerous identities and utilize them when necessary (Chen, Benet-Martiniez, & Bond, 2008). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Bicultural identity is common among many adolescents and serves as a coping mechanism of many minority youth (Santrock, 2012). Time plays a major role in ethnic and bicultural identity development. Older generations within families identify ethnically and culturally differently from younger generations. First generation family members display secure attachment culturally and ethnically, and are unlikely to change. Identification differences are mainly dependent upon length of time in a setting (Santrock, 2012). Citizenship type contributes heavily in minority culture development, as well as spoken languages and participation in non-homogenous social networks (Santrock, 2012). African Americans, Asian Americans, and Mexican Americans all represent minority groups in the United States. Identity development within each of these groups differs greatly. These groups have experienced racially biased discrimination that has caused extensive retention of their ethnic identity and cultural traditions (Santrock, 2012). In contrast, Asian and Hispanic groups immigrated voluntarily and held onto ethnic languages and ways and had no history of enslavement (Porter & Washington, 1993). The differences between these groups contribute to an identity that is either balanced or significantly centralized. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Identity exploration is positively correlated with favorable attitude toward ones’ own culture and that of others (Santrock, 2012). In the United States, minority youth typically live in impoverished areas and are exposed to crime, drugs and interact with individuals who are not attending school or are unemployed (Santrock, 2012). Research indicates that impoverished surroundings negatively impact identity development. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Deaf or hard of hearing individuals represent another form of culture that lends itself to capabilities or the lack thereof. Deaf individuals’ identity development is heavily dependent upon the circumstances of the hearing loss (Glickman, 1993). Deaf identity is comprised primarily of four classifications. Some individuals in the deaf community are considered culturally hearing, which are deaf individuals whom share the dominant attitudes and beliefs held by the dominant hearing community (Glickman, 1993). For some individuals, loyalty between deaf and hearing societies can cause confusion regarding relationship to each community. Some individuals immerse themselves into deaf culture and solely identify in that manner, while others form an identity that is balanced between the hearing and deaf communities (Glickman, 1993). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Cultural identity developmental models are useful instruments in organizing the developmental processes and behaviors of individuals (Sanchez, n.d.). Cultural identity models help explain progressive stages throughout individuals’ lives and help demonstrate an individual’s distinct cultural heritage (Sanchez, n.d.). Because of their similar structure, most models tend to resemble the three generic stages of cultural identity development: Beginning Stage—lack of awareness of the importance of culture; Intermediate Stages—psychological discomfort, self-examination, over-identification with own culture; and Final Stage—self-acceptance and appreciation of culture (Lee, Blando, Mizelle, & Orozco, 2007). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Models relating to racial identity are most widely known (Sanchez, n.d.). Cultural identity development models include: African American, White, Asian American, Hispanic/Latino American, American Indian, and biracial/multiracial identities. Janet E. Helms’ White Racial Identity Model was introduced in 1990 to “raise awareness of white people about their role in creating and maintaining a racist society and the need for them to act responsibly by dismantling it,” (Helms, 1992, p. 61). Helms’ model consists of two processes—abandonment of racism and the development of a non-racist white identity—with six specific racial identity statuses: 1) Contact Status, an obliviousness to one’s own racial identity; 2) Disintegration, first acknowledgement of white identity; 3) Reintegration, questions own racial identity, more conscious belief in white racial superiority; 4) Pseudo-independent, acceptance of own and other’s race; 5) Immersion/Emmersion, an honest appraisal of racism and significance of whiteness; and 6) Autonomy, increasing awareness of one’s own whiteness, development of a nonracist white identity (Helms, 1992). An individual will progress through the first three stages of obliviousness to awareness of his or her own white race and increase their acknowledgement for whiteness and its role on society. Once an individual advances through these stages, the last three are about developing a non-racist white identity, acknowledging what it means to be white, taking ownership of racial power and privilege and how it affects others, and working towards abandoning white privilege (Helms, 1992). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Another widely known racial identity model is Atkinson, Morten, and Sue’s (1989) Racial/Cultural Identity Development Model (R/CID) (Lee, Blando, Mizelle, & Orozco, 2007). This model combines the commonalities of several models for varying groups (racial/ethnic minorities, non-heterosexual individuals) into one (Sanchez, n.d.). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">The first stage of R/CID is Conformity—the individual embraces the dominant culture’s beliefs and customs while the characteristics of his or her own culture are rejected and scorned (Atkinson, Morten, & Sue, 1989). According to Sue & Sue (1999), this stage has the most “profound negative impact upon (ethnic) minority groups,” as individuals experience levels of low self-esteem for not being a part of the dominant culture (p. 96). White Americans are often the reference group, with their lifestyles, value systems, and cultural characteristics being highly valued in this stage (Atkinson, Morten, & Sue, 1989). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">The second stage of R/CID is Dissonance—an individual will experience situations and encounter information that is inconsistent with culturally held beliefs, attitudes, and values (Atkinson, Morten, & Sue, 1989). The denial that was previously built in stage one begins to break down; and an individual begins to question and challenge the attitudes and beliefs of that stage (Sanchez, n.d.). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Stage three, Resistance and Immersion, is when an individual begins to fully endorse their own culture’s values and beliefs and reject those of the dominant culture (Sanchez, n.d.). During this stage, an individual has a strong desire to eliminate oppression of his or her own minority group, experiencing feelings of guilt, shame, and anger (Atkinson, Morten, & Sue, 1989). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Introspection, the second to final stage, is where the individual begins to realize the intense feelings developed in stage three are draining and acting as a roadblock to developing one’s own self-identity (Atkinson, Morten, & Sue, 1989). The individual may experience conflicting feelings of discontent and discomfort with their own minority group viewpoint (Sanchez, n.d.). In this stage, an individual tries to develop a better understanding of one’s self and takes an objective view of both cultures, while trying to integrate the two (Sanchez, n.d.). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">The final stage of R/CID, Integrative Awareness, is where a person develops an “inner sense of security and can now appreciate unique aspects of their culture as well as those in U.S. culture,” (Sue & Sue, 1999, p. 106). In this stage, the minority culture is not in conflict with the dominant culture, as the person can see both positive and negative views of both (Atkinson, Morten, & Sue, 1989). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">A model that focuses on a person’s sexual orientation is Vivian Cass’ model of development of non-heterosexual individuals. This model is based on two broad assumptions: 1) identity is acquired through a developmental process, and 2) the locus of stability of, and change, in behavior lies in the interaction between an individual and his or her environment (Sanchez, n.d.). The model has six stages through which a person progresses through from the development of “who am I?” to having the ability to define oneself more holistically (Cass, 1979). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">The beginning stage, Identity Confusion, starts with a person asking his or her self the question of “who am I” and “could I be gay?” (Cass, 1979). It is within this stage that a person may accept, deny, or reject his or her self-identity (Cass, 1979). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">In the Identity Comparison stage, an individual begins to accept the possibility that she or he may be gay (Cass, 1979). Individuals in this stage tend to alienate themselves and live in isolation (Cass, 1979). The person may grieve for the losses of things she or he will give up by embracing their sexual orientation (Cass, 1979). In the following stage, Identity Tolerance, there is an increased commitment to being lesbian or gay, and a person begins to accept the sexual, social, and emotional needs that go with this identity (Cass, 1979). It is within this period that an individual begins to socialize with other lesbians and gays, and leaves the isolation stage (Cass, 1979). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Identity Acceptance, the fourth stage, enables a person to state to his or her self that they will be OK (Cass, 1979). An individual fully accepts his or her identity and continues to connect with the lesbian and gay culture (Cass, 1979). In the next stage, the person begins to feel pride in their new identity (Cass, 1979). A person may say, “I’ve got to let people know who I am!” and begins to immerse oneself in lesbian and gay culture (Cass, 1979). With immersion, the individual has less and less involvement with the heterosexual community (Cass, 1979). During this phase of personal development, an individual may split the world into “gay” (good) and “straight” (bad) (Cass, 1979). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">In the sixth and final stage, Identity Synthesis occurs within the individual (Cass, 1979). This is the point where an individual develops a holistic view of oneself, defining his or her identity in a more complete manner, where sexual orientation is an aspect of self and not the whole identity (Cass, 1979). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Although models of racial and/or cultural identities are comprehensive in bringing multiple racial and cultural identity concepts together, users of these models must be aware of possible stereotyping, have an understanding that such models lack an adequate integration of socio-demographic group identities, and remember that they are merely conceptual aids to a far more complex human development system (Sanchez, n.d.). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Throughout an individual’s life, a person will explore many facets of their own identity development, with culture constituting as a major segment in the overall identity of the individual. A person may identify with multiple cultures, based on sexual orientation, gender, disability, and ethnicity, while also distinguishing his or her self as an individual, standing out from their peers. Many individuals reach a final identity awareness and appreciation, which may take years or possibly decades, crossing multiple stages of confusion, to awareness, to acceptance.

**<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">References ** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Atkinson, D. R., Morten, G., & Sue, D. W. (1989). A minority identity development model. In Dr. Atkinson, G. Morten, & D. W. Sue (Eds), Counseling American Minorities (pp. 35- 52). Dubuque, IA: W. C. Brown. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Bahrick, L.E., Moss, L. and C. Fadil. (1996). Development of Visual Self-Recognition in Infancy. //Ecological Psychology, 8//(3). 189-208. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Cass, V. C. (1979). Homosexual identity formation: A theoretical model. Journal of Homosexuality, 4, 219-235. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Chen, S. X., Benet-Martinez, V., & Bond, M. H. (2008). Bicultural identity, bilingualism, and psychological adjustment in multicultural societies: Immigration- based and globalization-based acculturation. //Journal of Personality, 76//(4), 803-838. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2008.00505.x <span style="color: #141414; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Helms, J. E. (1984). Toward a theoretical explanation of the effects of race on counseling: A Black and White model. //The Counseling Psychologist, 12//, 153-165. <span style="color: #141414; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Helms, J. E. (1992). A race is a nice thing to have: A guide to being a white person or understanding the white persons in your life. Topeka, Kansas: Content Communications. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Lee, C. C. (2006). Multicultural issues in counseling. Alexandria: American Counseling Association. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Lee, W., Blando, J., Mizelle, N., & Orozco, G. (2007). Introduction to multicultural counseling for helping professionals, second edition. New York: Routledge. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Glickman, S. N. (1993). Deaf identity development: Construction and validation of a theoretical model. //Electronic Doctoral Dissertations for UMass Amherst.// Paper AAI9329612. Retrieved From: [] <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Porter, J. R., & Washington, R. E. (1993). Minority identity and self-esteem. //Annual Review of Sociology,19,// 139-161. Retrieved from [] <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Santrock, J.W. (2012). A Topical Approach to Life-Span Development. 6th Ed. New York: McGraw-Hill. Print <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. (2010). Personal Identity. Retrieved from [] <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Sue, D. W., & Sue, D. (1999). Counseling the culturally different: Theory and practice (3rd ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.